The Deterritorialization of Sacred Plants

Sacred Plants & the Psychedelic Renaissance

Sacred plants have long been respected as ancient properties by Indigenous peoples worldwide, playing a significant role in traditional healing practices due to their profound effects. Traditionally approached with reverence, plants and fungi are sometimes referred to as medicines, including but not limited to ayahuasca, peyote, and psilocybin mushrooms; they contain psychoactive compounds that induce altered states of consciousness that have been historically valued for their ability to facilitate spiritual experiences, promote healing, and deepen connections with nature and the divine (Fotiou, 2019).

The mainstreaming of psychedelics amidst the so-called psychedelic renaissance has also witnessed the perception of these substances change rapidly as they show promise for their potential therapeutic benefits for individuals dealing with complex psychiatric conditions (Williams et al., 2022).

However, in recent times, the use of sacred plants has faced challenges and controversies due to globalization causing the process of deterritorialization. This has brought many challenges to preserving and protecting traditional practices and the cultural significance of these plants as they are increasingly commodified and appropriated by mainstream society. Deterritorialization refers to the breaking down of boundaries and territorial limits, resulting in the displacement and disconnection of cultural practices from their original contexts (Eko, 2021). As we see psychedelics and plant medicines being integrated into the global market and used outside of their traditional cultural frameworks, it raises concerns about cultural appropriation, the exploitation of Indigenous knowledge and practices, and the erosion of sacred significance.

Pace and Devenot (2021) propose the concept of psychedelics as "politically pluripotent," suggesting that psychedelics act as non-specific amplifiers of the political set and setting. Considering this, it is important to carefully examine the impact of deterritorialization on sacred plants and their potential effects in specific socio-political contexts, such as the ongoing genocide in Palestine.

Knowing that individuals and groups in Israel are using psychedelics in a variety of ways, it is crucial to explore how the deterritorialization of sacred plants allows for the appropriation and misuse of these substances, potentially undermining their sacredness and instead have them amplify and reproduce settler colonial violence (Roseman & Karkabi, 2021). By combining various perspectives from cultural anthropology, critical theory, and political analysis, this essay seeks to analyze the implications of deterritorialization and capitalism on sacred plants, exemplified by the ongoing genocide in Palestine.

Sacred Plants, Culture, & Spiritual Ontologies

The commercialization of psychedelics and their integration into the practices of conventional medicine and the pharmaceutical sector is taking place under the guise of a psychedelic renaissance without adequate consideration of the knowledge held by Indigenous and traditional communities, who have historically used these substances for time inmemorial. Sacred plants, as defined by Frenopaulo and Goulart (2022), are plants and fungi with a history of traditional use among Indigenous peoples, and as botanical entities with profound spiritual, ceremonial, and healing significance to these cultures.

For many of these populations, sacred plants have played not only a role for ceremonial use but are a reflection of each group's culture and identity. The people of the Sierra Mazateca region in Mexico, for example, have traditionally utilized a sacred plant medicine of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, known as "hongos sagrados," as an essential element in their cultural traditions (Feinberg, 2018). The curanderos, "people of knowledge" in Spanish, held significant official roles within their communities by providing counsel and leadership, mediating disputes between villages and kinship groups, and organizing communal rituals to address issues and support community initiatives (Feinberg, 2018). Also referred to as "niños santos," which means "sacred children" or "holy children", this term reflects the reverence and spiritual significance attributed to the mushrooms in the context of Mazatec shamanic practices and beliefs (Feinberg, 2018).

Similarly, Ayahuasca, a psychoactive plant brew made from the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and other plant additives, has a long history of use among Indigenous communities in the Amazon basin for ceremonial purposes. The term "ayahuasca" originates from the Peruvian Indigenous Quechua language, referring to a jungle liana and the brew made from it, emphasizing the importance of places and land on the epistemology of a given plant from a particular culture (Tupper, 2008).

The history of ayahuasca is intertwined with the spiritual beliefs, cosmologies, and healing practices of Indigenous peoples in the Amazon region but like mushrooms and peyote, the global interest of these plants stripped from their historical significance is paired with inherent Eurocentrism in discourses of modernity and globalization which perpetuate socio-political and epistemological hegemony, leading to the imposition of Western ideas and values on non-Western cultures (Tupper, 2008).

Williams and Brant (2023) note that sacred plant medicines provide a pathway for humans to access the vital life force of Creation or more-than-human power. They emphasize that we can fully harness the power and potential of these sacred plant allies only when we are deeply connected with the emotional currents and relational bonds in the location where the sacred plants are used (Williams & Brant, 2023). This prompts important considerations about the consequences of globalizing sacred plants and their potential uses in different cultural settings, underscoring the importance of contemplating interconnectedness and the fundamental nature of their existence.

Indigenous Ontologies & Relational Epistemologies

In the process of integrating sacred plants and psychedelics into mainstream Western culture through medicalization models, it is essential to recognize and honour the cultural significance of these plants in traditional societies.

Indigenous ontologies and epistemologies guide practices rooted in reciprocity with sacred plants, based on a profound understanding of the interconnectedness between humans, nature, and the spiritual realm that has persisted for countless generations (Dev, 2018). Archeological evidence suggests that mushroom stones dating back to 3000 BC and evidence of peyote use dating back over 5000 years, indicate the long history of hallucinogen use in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (Carod-Artal, 2015).

Furthermore, many cultures worldwide consider certain food plants sacred due to their significance in ceremonial or ritualistic events (Frenopoulo & Goulart, 2022). Despite not having the psychoactive properties that sacred plants typically induce, these food plants are often central to local understandings of mythology, healing, and spiritual well-being (Frenopoulo & Goulart, 2022).

An example of this is seen among the Wajãmpi people in northern Brazil, where women have a close emotional connection with the cultivated manioc plant which holds significant cosmological importance and is used as a staple food, as well as to make an intoxicating fermented beverage (Welch, 2022). The Indigenous Ramkokamekra-Canela of this region believe that crop diversity originated when the mythological Star-Woman visited them and shared plants considered good, beautiful, original or true (Welch, 2022). This is also seen with the A’uwẽ people who consider maize and wild root vegetables as sacred food plants due to their exceptional healthfulness and unique appropriateness as gifts during specific ceremonies and ritual events (Welch, 2022).

Authors (see Doffana, 2017; Frenopoulo & Goulart, 2022) emphasize the importance of biodiversity as an essential aspect of safeguarding the cultural and ecological integrity of sacred plants as cultural practices and traditional knowledge are intertwined with the biodiversity and land of these areas.

Moreover, Ryan (2012) reminds us that we need to move beyond traditional biases that have portrayed plants as passive and unthinking entities, challenging the anthropocentric and zoocentric perspectives that have dominated Western thought. Relational perspectives, which consider creation as a web of interdependent relationships involving humans, non-humans, and elements of nature that contribute to upholding the cosmic equilibrium of existence, offer different ways to comprehend the importance of sacred plants (Frenopoulo & Goulart, 2022). This is particularly relevant in a contemporary context where deterritorialization processes erode meaning from various cultural practices and traditional knowledge.

Indigenous relational epistemologies guide the form and substance of Indigenous methodologies, therefore, the Western world must understand and actively engage with plants based on similar principles to prevent further marginalization and erasure of Indigenous cultures and their sacred plant practices caused by colonialism and globalization.

Deterritorialization as a Colonial Force

The concept of "deterritorialization" denotes the act of overcoming well-established boundaries, encompassing natural, biological, political, cultural, spiritual, and social limits—both physical and symbolic (Eko, 2021). This term was introduced by philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari to criticize capitalism as a process of displacement and continues to be utilized in diverse fields including economics, anthropology, religiosity and artistic expression (Eko, 2021).

Critics argue that deterritorialization operates across political, cultural, and social boundaries, reshaping and transcending traditional territorial constraints in various aspects of life and undermining established norms and practices (Eko, 2021). Cleveland and Bartsch (2019) suggest that the advancement of global media and technology is identified as a driving force behind deterritorialization, enabling rapid communication across geographical boundaries. This facilitates the dissemination of globally shared consumption symbols, such as brands, and accelerates the process of acculturation (Cleveland & Bartsch, 2019).

Although this allows for the emergence of new consumption domains that are not bound by specific origins or locations, critics are wary of the implications of this as it pertains to the commodification of sacred plant practices. Cultural and social components of this phenomenon work to decontextualize, diffuse, and displace certain norms and elements without regard to traditional boundaries (Eko, 2021). Tupper (2008) raises concerns that the weakening of cultural ties to the local environment and privileging global spatial flows of information and capital over local connections can significantly impact how individuals engage with and interpret traditional practices like ayahuasca rituals, potentially altering the significance and understanding of these practices.

Considering that Indigenous peoples have historically faced challenges in asserting their rights and demanding respect for their cultures, the deterritorialization process of ayahuasca and other sacred plants warrants scrutiny about issues around biopiracy, cultural appropriation, and the overall homogenizing tendency that globalization reproduces by perceiving Western ideas, values, and lifestyles as dominate to traditional Indigenous cultures (Tupper, 2008). The work of Besky and Padwe (2016) underscores that even so, boundaries, colonial and contemporary forms of ordering and classification, notions of sovereignty, and powers of exclusion are still mainly influenced by human priorities and that territory should continue being understood from an anti-anthropocentric lens.

Globalization, Commodification, & the Psychedelic Industry

Globalization, with its deterritorialization and cultural homogenization processes, has significant implications for the commodification of sacred plants with critics viewing it as a form of neocolonialism (Tupper, 2008).

Plants and fungi like ayahuasca, psilocybe mushrooms, tobacco, iboga, jurema, and brugmansia have gained global recognition for their use as pharmacological medications within the biomedical framework (Frenopoulo & Goulart, 2022). This neoliberal approach, however, reduces these sacred plants to mere commodities, divorced from their cultural and spiritual contexts, and opens the door for re-contextualization in a new setting (Devenot, 2023).

This commodification not only contributes to the erosion of traditional knowledge systems and the exploitation of Indigenous communities but also perpetuates a Western-centric perspective that disregards the cultural, spiritual, and ecological dimensions of these sacred plants (Fotiou, 2019).

Santos (2017) emphasizes that globalization is a hegemonic marker that shapes sociohistorical conflicts created by capitalism that is not a neutral or uniform process but is marked by power struggles, domination, and resistance.

In the context of sacred plants, globalization exacerbates these power dynamics and reinforces existing systems of oppression and marginalization. An example of this can be seen with the issue of psychedelic tourism, where Westerners travel to areas like the Amazon to partake in psychedelic experiences, often facilitated by individuals who may not have the necessary expertise or cultural understanding (González Romero, 2022). This raises ethical questions about the commodification of traditional healing practices and the potential harm to local communities and ecosystems in the name of spiritual exploration and personal growth as companies may profit from Indigenous knowledge and practices without adequately compensating or respecting the communities involved.

Subsequently, biopiracy raises several ethical and legal challenges. It often contributes to the unsustainable extraction of natural resources, inadequate compensation to Indigenous parties involved, and raises questions about the responsible conduct of research, the protection of traditional knowledge, and the need for transparency and accountability in bioprospecting practices (Efferth et al., 2016).

As sacred plants find their way across the globe into various contexts, including the Western world, their cultural significance and spiritual value can become diluted or commodified, leading to a loss of understanding and respect for their true meanings and purposes.

Political Pluripotency & the Ideological Ambiguity of Psychedelics

As sacred plants and psychedelics enter the mainstream, the notion that these substances are inherently positive poses serious concerns as they continue to be conflated with the progressive and radical movements of the 1960s and 1970s counterculture (Devenot, 2023). During these decades, there was a significant increase in countercultural interest in classical psychedelics as these substances became closely linked with progressive and radical political movements such as the sexual revolution, the Civil Rights Movement, and youth radical groups like Students for a Democratic Society or the Yippies (Devenot, 2023).

The association of psychedelics with progressive politics during this era has influenced perceptions of the potential impact of psychedelics on political ideologies, however, assuming that psychedelics lead to progressive politics deserves greater scrutiny, especially in the context of the nascent psychedelic renaissance and the burgeoning psychedelic industry. Emerging science on how psychedelics interact with human consciousness not only shows promise for their therapeutic potential but also indicates that psychedelics can alter emotional processing, self-regulation, and social behaviour—often having lasting effects on individual and group well-being and sociality (Rodríguez Arce & Winkelman, 2021).

However, Pace and Devenot (2021) make the argument that psychedelics, despite their benefits, have the potential to reinforce existing power dynamics and systems of oppression by defining them as politically pluripotent, suggesting that these substances act as non-specific amplifiers of the political set and setting. The writers further examine how psychedelic encounters have the potential to bring about changes in political viewpoints, without being tied to a specific orientation on traditional political scales such as conservatism-liberalism or authoritarianism-egalitarianism (Pace & Devenot, 2021).

The increasing corporatization of these substances is leading them into spheres where users may have diverse political and ideological beliefs which isn't necessarily harmful, but it raises the question of how these substances are then employed to spread ideas and beliefs, and who determines the boundaries for these reinterpretations.

Devenot (2023) reveals that the current nature of the corporatization of psychedelics is concealed as mental healthcare but is propelled by an elitist worldview that is widely held among Silicon Valley billionaires. This worldview often prioritizes the individualistic pursuit of personal growth and optimization, while neglecting the systemic and structural factors that contribute to mental health issues.

González Romero (2022) critically points out internal colonialism and how it can manifest through practices of cultural appropriation, biopiracy, epistemological extractivism, and discrimination, leading to the dominance of certain voices and narratives while silencing or devaluing others, perpetuating inequalities and power imbalances within the field.

The implications of using psychedelics in new contexts, which may embody traits of internal and/or external colonialism, can have far-reaching consequences. This is particularly true when it comes to the appropriation and commodification of sacred plants in the context of unfolding global issues such as the Israel-Palestine conflict.

Settler Colonialism, Sacred Plants, & the Israel-Palestine Conflict

Since 1948, also known as the Nakba, the state of Israel has been illegally occupying, extracting, and destroying the land and resources of the Palestinian people, leading to a prolonged and brutal genocide (Nijim, 2022). This ongoing genocide, which has escalated drastically over the past few years, has resulted in countless deaths, displacement, and the destruction of homes and infrastructure in Palestine.

The Israeli government, with the support of various international actors, has implemented policies of aggression, colonization, and apartheid that systematically oppress and marginalize the Palestinian people, denying them basic human rights and dignity (Nijim, 2022).

Amidst this settler colonial regime, the appropriation and commodification of sacred plants by outsiders has further compounded the injustice and exploitation faced by the Indigenous Palestinians. The development of rave culture and The New Age movement have embraced these substances since the late 1980s when backpackers returned home from their travels to the state of Goa in India and the islands in Southern Thailand, where they were exposed to electronic music parties associated with substance use (Bonny-Noach et al., 2023).

Nature raves, also known as outdoor raves or forest parties, are music events in natural settings such as forests, fields, beaches, or other outdoor locations where participants engage in collective dancing, music, and often the use of psychedelics to enhance their experience (Bonny-Noach et al., 2023). Despite using these substances for connection and artistic expression, some critics have begun to analyze the implications of these experiences. Recently, videos have surfaced online showing people under the influence of psychedelics organizing nature raves as a form of political protest to prevent aid from entering parts of Gaza that are being intentionally destroyed and denied access to fundamental human rights (Medvin, 2024).

Even outside of the context of recreational use, a study in 2021 aimed to investigate how psychedelics, particularly ayahuasca, can contribute to processes of peacebuilding in an intercultural context embedded in a protracted conflict, such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (Roseman et al., 2021). The researchers conducted 31 in-depth interviews with participants who engaged in ayahuasca ceremonies together and found that participants experienced a sense of unity and 'oneness' during the ceremonies, leading to a feeling of shared humanity and dissolution of other social identities and that the theme of connection and recognition of 'the Other' among participants highlighted the potential for empathy and understanding across conflicting groups (Roseman et al., 2021).

Ritual Inclusion & the Limits of Depoliticized Healing

The research uncovered that incorporating sacred plant medicines into the Israeli-Palestinian conflict can aid in reconciliation processes, however, it failed to address the underlying sources of trauma and oppression experienced by Palestinian participants (Roseman & Karkabi, 2021).

As discussed by Roseman and Karkabi (2022), the group failed to acknowledge Palestinian national identity, perpetuating a power dynamic where Palestinian participants felt excluded and undervalued. Additionally, not only was the dominance of Hebrew as the primary language spoken during the rituals creating linguistic barriers, but many Palestinians felt like outsiders in the ayahuasca rituals due to their limited subcultural capital and unfamiliarity with Israeli New Age spiritual jargon and norms (Roseman & Karkabi, 2021).

The focus on harmony and avoidance of political and conflictual topics in the rituals, including displacement, dispossession, and colonization, inadvertently preserved ethnonational power relations and depoliticized feelings which worked to mask the oppressive realities faced by Palestinians under Israeli occupation under the guise of healing and peacebuilding.

According to Rick Doblin — founder of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), a corporatized, non-profit research organization that focuses on the therapeutic use of psychedelics and cannabis—claimed that the psychedelic experience is the "antidote to genocide..." (Devenot, 2023).

When contrasting this to the genocide in Palestine, it becomes apparent that the use of sacred plants and psychedelic experiences alone cannot address the deep-rooted structural injustices and systemic violence that come with settler colonialism, and is a reminder that deterritorialization in the context of sacred plants should not be divorced from the socio-political realities and power dynamics within which they exist and are practiced.

There is indeed potential for transformation to catalyze change and promote a more inclusive and politically engaged approach to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. However, the recontextualization of sacred plants here poses a threat to Palestinian national identity and the systemic change necessary to address the root causes of the conflict, especially when considering the historical and ongoing oppression on the Indigenous people of Palestine.

Pharmakon: Psychedelics Between Medicine & Poison

Psychedelics and sacred plants can possess political potency, while also exhibiting medicinal and poisonous qualities that can either promote healing or cause harm. As defined by ancient Greeks, the term pharmakon has multiple meanings, including "drug," "medicine," "remedy," or even "poison" (Totelin, 2015).

Encompassing various substances used for healing or harming purposes, the multifaceted nature of this term appropriately describes psychedelics and sacred plants in the 21st century, and informs the need for caution and critical analysis when considering their use concerning deterritorialization.

Devenot (2023) warns us that the current discourse around psychedelic medicalization and the promise of individualized solutions may risk perpetuating existing societal problems, such as authoritarianism and climate change, by being constructed within neoliberalism because these orientations are incompatible with Indigenous relational ontologies.

With the influence of elite narratives and neoliberal ideologies in shaping the discourse around psychedelics and sacred plants, the need for critical voices to challenge fabricated narratives and power dynamics that drive the development and deployment of these discourses becomes crucial.

Authors (see Devenot, 2023; Santos, 2017) underscore the importance of collective resistance by organizing beyond the narratives promoted by elite interests, individuals and communities can challenge power dynamics and ensure that the potential benefits of psychedelics are harnessed for genuine prosocial and pro-environmental outcomes.

Despite the well-intentioned promises for healing, critical perspectives are essential for understanding the true motivations and implications behind the development of psychedelics as pharmaceutical medications and capitalist investment opportunities.

Toward a Decolonial & Reciprocal Future

Centring decolonization, reciprocity, and pluriversality in the discourse surrounding sacred plant practices is imperative. These practices have deep roots in Indigenous cultures, and any discussions or implementations of them should prioritize the voices and knowledge of these communities.

Williams and Brant (2023) remind us that decolonization in the psychedelic resurgence requires Western culture to take seriously Indigenous onto-epistemologies of kinship through radical recognition and enactment of a kin-centric cosmology in the psychedelic sphere and beyond.

Whether that's through fostering collaborative relationships, the adoption of Indigenous nomenclature and linguistic constructs, and embracing conceptual frameworks that recognize the personhood of the more-than-human world, decolonization efforts can lead to a more authentic understanding of Indigenous ontologies and foster respectful relationships with sacred plants and the communities who have been stewards of these practices for centuries (Williams & Brant, 2023).

Authors (see Fotiou, 2019; González Romero, 2022) also stress the importance of addressing sensitive issues related to the ownership of Indigenous lands and knowledge to foster a more ethical and equitable approach to psychedelic research. Even within the confines of neoliberal, capitalist societies, adopting practices best understood within gift economy logic supports the potential to create networks of support and solidarity that can challenge dominant economic systems by fostering interconnected relationships (Williams & Brant, 2023).

The capitalist mode of production and its associated values have led to a monopoly on sacred plants and psychedelics, but we must keep questioning the effects of deterritorialization and stay rooted in relational ontologies that prioritize reciprocity and care above all else.

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